Lipase Producing Rhodococcus Strains Analysis

Lipase Producing Rhodococcus Strains Analysis CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Overview of research Malaysia has attained an outstanding position as world’s second largest palm oil producer. This remarkable quality indirectly eases high consumption of palm oil in the country. As per statistic, industrial domestic consumption has achieved 2,000 million tonnes of palm oil while, general domestic consumption reaches 3,160 million tonnes for the year 2013 (Index Mundi, 2013). Considering variable food industry scales available in the country, this ideal identity has even manifested Malaysia’s status as â€Å"Asia’s Food Paradise†. Number advantages such wide availability and consistent utilization of cooking oil throughout the nation, has indirectly resulted to startling questions on the management of used cooking oil. Coined and defined already that, lipids holds the largest portion of organic components in municipal and industrial wastewater particularly from food industries (Prasad Manjanuth, 2011). Improper management of fatty wastes on the other hand, has led to serious anthropogenic damages such as clogging pipes, congest treatment filters, odour problems, oil film formation and depleting oxygen hence, damaging aquatic livings (Fadile et al., 2011; Cipinyte et al., 2009). Therefore, removal as well as early remediation on lipid contaminant has become a great necessary due to its associated negative impacts. In regards to the necessity of improvement in biological treatment, enzymatic technology specifically lipase is gaining increasing attention. Concept of â€Å"White Biotechnology† introduces two implications on fatty acid contaminants namely concept of biodegradation and biotransformation (Dors et al., 2013; Whiteley Lee, 2006). Biological treatment on lipid contaminated sites employ microbial lipase to detoxify, solubilize fatty acids and further commence conversion into microbial biomass. Despite the nature of treatment technology, it is crucial to ensure incorporation of right microbes on right place with suitable environment conditions for degradation to occur (Ugukchokwu et al., 2008). Fascinatingly, aerobic biodegradation by active lipolytic strains was proven to be feasible with many other added advantages compared to other strategies (Cipinyte et al., 2009). On top of it, lipases also exhibit excellent feasibility in early remediation through biotransformation approach. Abundant waste fatty feedstock prior to disposal can be modified in structure by lipolytic reactions. These modifications could be applied to serve demands for numerous industrial products like pet food, cosmetics, detergents, soap, floatation reagent and handcrafts (Used cooking oil, 2011; Shimizu, 1988; Alonso et al., 2000; Emoterabear, 2013). To date, current growing industrialization projected great necessary for alternative energy fuel-source due to depleting petroleum based fuels. As an enzymatic early remediation, researchers also have introduced lipase catalysed biodiesel product in oleochemical industry (Felizardo et al., 2006). Parallel to the â€Å"Green Environment† strategy, used cooking oil are proven to be possible alternate feedstock for biodiesel production as well (Chetri Watts et al., 2008). Considering wide range of versatility of lipase as biocatalyst, this enzyme is catered for both biodegradation and biotransformation productively. However, researchers are still in search of new lipase-lipid interaction to diversify the efficiency and upgrade quality of the existing outcome. Therefore in present investigation, production of lipase enzyme from locally isolated actinomycete known as Rhodococcus sp. was investigated. Denoting minimal documentation on lipase production by this actinomycete, yet the extreme ability of the strain to degrade oil extensively draws great intuition on lipase production. 1.2 Statement of problem As an amalgamation of many races, Malaysia has established a robust position for various food cuisines especially variable deep fried dishes. Therefore, large amount of cooking oil is required in the food preparation which simultaneously yields similar portion of utilized cooking oil. Consequently, excessive increments of waste cooking oil (WCO) are being disposed to waste streams continuously which lead to many detrimental effects to the environment. Therefore, it’s absolutely necessary to apply bioremediation concept to comprehensively treat the contaminated waste sites while providing early remediation to manage the increasing abundance of fatty waste materials. In order to emphasize high occurrence of waste cooking oil production especially in Malaysia, a survey was conducted in Teluk Bahang, Pulau Pinang, a local area popularly known for food business. The outcome reveals that the community generates 40% of more than 15kg of waste cooking oil monthly as described in Figur e 1.1. Figure 1.1: Production of WCO in Teluk Bahang, Pulau Pinang, a popular food industry area in Malaysia (Hanishah et al., 2013). 1.3 Justification of problem As aforementioned, cooking oil has become a basic ingredient for food preparation in the entire world. Deep frying is recognized as traditional practice of food preparation, where the oil are left exposed repeatedly to excessive heat of 160  ºC- 190  ºC in presence of moisture and air (Kamisah et al., 2012). Additionally, people tend to be fonder of fried food due to the attractive colour, fast preparation, delicious taste and catchy presentation in dining (Cvengros Cvengrosova, 2004). As a result, waste cooking oil are extensively being generated due to food and semi product preparation by frying such as fast food networks, restaurants, dining rooms, catering establishments throughout the world (Cvengros Cvengrosova, 2004; Kulkarni Dalai, 2006). According to a report by Capital Region District, 2012, almost 1million kilograms of fat contaminants are being disposed through our home drainage every year. Review in Asia countries like Malaysia, China, Indonesia, India and Thailand on the other hand, estimates to produce waste cooking oil for 40 000 tonnes per year (Hanisah et al., 2013). Meanwhile to be detail, excessive heating of cooking oil causes chemical modification by forming toxic compounds like peroxides, aldehyde and polymer via few reactions including hydrolysis, oxidation and thermolytic (Kulkarni Dalai, 2006; Hanisha et al. 2013). In agreement to this, study by Kamisah et al. (2012) found out that repeated heating of cooking oil augmented lipid peroxidation formation in the oil which causes severe health problems to human. Malaysian’s night markets for an instance, offer variety deep fried snacks such as keropok lekor, meat balls, sausages and potato chips. Different type of fried food indeed causes different fatty acid composition and anti- oxidant properties to the frying oil (Awney, 2011, Purushothama et al., 2003; Adam et al., 2007). In case of keropok lekor, a popular snack in Malaysia, the oil is prone to autoxidation due to the presence of polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), therefore, the oil has been chemically modified (Kamsiah et al., 2 012). Nevertheless, if this â€Å"dead oil† been disposed to water streams or land, it indirectly causes both water pollution and land pollution. After being disposed to aquatic environment, this contaminant undergoes four natural actions namely weathering, evaporation, emulsification or biodegradation. In exceptional to biodegradation, the rest of natural actions leads to the formation of oil slick or oil film on surface of water. Meanwhile droplets of oil will be vertically distributed in water, increasing BOD and COD value besides, transforming into toxic compound due to degraded oil by-product (Hanisah et al., 2013; Understanding oil spills and oil spill response, 1999; Marjadi Dharaiya, 2010). Riskily, these cause an interaction between the oil and sediments to occur hence, affecting living of aquatic lives. Indirectly, these carcinogenic compounds can be absorbed into by marine creatures and affect human food chain (Kulkarni Dalai, 2006; Hanisah et al., 2013; Understanding o il spills and oil spill response, 1999). Figure 1.2 precisely describes natural actions encountered due to disposal of waste cooking oil into water and land. 1.4 Scope of research In regards to detrimental impacts imposed by waste cooking oil, it’s absolutely prudent to commence treatment on lipid contaminated sites and further discover feasible ways to manage the fatty waste materials. Therefore, presence research recommends remediation through biodegradation and biotransformation for an effectual management of the waste cooking oil. Lipases, being a ubiquitous biocatalyst significantly extend frontiers of applications through hydrolysis as well as esterification reactions. Favourably, waste cooking oil that has been disposed to the water streams can be potentially treated with biocatalytic action of lipase producing microorganisms. Waste cooking oil prior to disposal also can be potentially transformed into many value-added products through structure modification by the same catalyst as well. Concerning numerous microbial lipases and wide range of reactions catered by lipase enzyme, it’s essential to obtain this biocatalyst from a novel and reliable source. This will highlight new lipid-lipase interaction with better characteristics for improvement and further add intrinsic value for industrial interests adequately (Jesus et al., 1999; Glogauer et al., 2011). Considering the alarming production of waste cooking oil by local food industries and household disposal, a feasible remediation requires a promising local yet new source for lipase enzyme. Appropriately, local Rhodococcus strains, an actinomycete isolated throughout Peninsular Malaysia was not been evaluated for lipase production. Being an excellent hydrocarbon degrader, these serial of strains is expected to project excellent level of lipase secretion and further be applied into both biodegradation and biotransformation. Upon, identification of lipase production from this actinomycete, the best lipase producing strains was optimized for maximum enzyme activity. Since, this bacteria is poorly studied, the crude enzyme was subjected for electrophoresis to estimate the size protein band of the extracted enzyme. Later on, practicability of the optimized strains was applied as both whole cell biocatalyst (naturally immobilised cell) and immobilised intracellular crude. A preliminary analysis of the enzyme to biodegrade WCO and also biotransform WCO into biodiesel was evaluated also for future studies. Precisely, lipolytic actions illustrated in Figure 1.3 are the reactions evaluated in biodegradation and biotransformation of WCO by Rhodococcal lipase in this study. Figure 1.3: (a) Hydrolytic reactions displayed by lipase enzyme to solubilize fatty acids and further convert into biomass during biodegradation of WCO (Jaeger Reetz, 1998). (b) Trans-esterification reaction by lipase enzyme involving transfer of alcohol moiety to form acid alkyl ester during biotransformation in biodiesel production (Murugesan et al., 2009). 1.5 Objectives of this research The primary goal of this study is to identify and evaluate lipase producing Rhodococcus strains, as ideal source for bioremediation purposes. Following are the stages of objectives obeyed in this investigation: To screen and identify for the most potential lipase producing Rhodococcus isolates To study the optimum conditions required for maximum lipase production by identified lipolytic Rhodococcus sp. To evaluate ability of Rhodococcus lipase to degrade waste cooking oil. To investigate the ability of Rhodococcus lipase to catalyze conversion of waste cooking oil into biodiesel. Figure 1.4: Flow chart representing designed work flow of this research.

Jane Eyre: Bildungsroman

Nicholas Scelzi Mrs. Pinto English 10H Period 2 April 14, 2013 Jane Eyre as a Bildungsroman Jane Eyre, written by Charlotte Bronte, is a Bildungsroman. A Bildungsroman is a novel in which the protagonist engages in a moral and psychological growth. A Bildungsroman generally exhibits the growth and development of a particular individual within a confined social order. The character, to travel on this road to adulthood and development, must have some sort of loss or discontent.The path that the character travels is long, arduous, and gradual and is lodged with hardship and adversity between the needs, desires and views of the protagonist and the norm of society. Ultimately, the spirit and values of the social order becomes evident in the protagonist and the protagonist displays a new position in society. In the opening chapter of Jane Eyre, Jane, the protagonist, is abused emotionally, physically and verbally by her antipathetic family. Her cousin John, who demands that Jane refer to h im as Master, is especially belligerent.While reading and minding her own business, Jane is disturbed and attacked by her malicious cousin for no good reason. This is the first time Jane stands up for herself and yells back at her cousin, only to receive a worse punishment and become imprisoned in the red-room at Gateshead, which is the same room in which her late uncle was waked. She soon hallucinates and sees illusions of her ghastly uncle. Jane later attends an orphan school called Lowood, where she is, yet again, treated cruelly. You can read also Analysis of Literary Devices of Jane EyreHowever, there is a single girl who is content and uncomplaining: Helen Burns, a young girl who has faith that God will. Jane admires this and soon befriends Helen. Helen grows ill and dies, but her last words reassure her strong-rooted faith in God and inspire Jane to have the same faith. Jane remains at Lowood for eight years, six as a student and two as a teacher, furthering her education and accelerating to the top of her class. When Jane leaves Lowood, she gets a job as a governess at Thornfield Hall, where she falls in love with her employer.She discovers, however, that he is already wedded and faces the inner conflict of whether or not to stay with him. She decides it is essential that she must leave and move on. Ten months later, after finding home with her unbeknownst cousins and inheriting a fortune of five-thousand pounds, she returns to her love, Mr. Edward Rochester, and finds out that his insane wife killed hers elf. She accepts his proposal and they marry and live happily thereafter. Jane, who was once an abused orphan, grew to become mature, educated and moral woman. She was a tortured and passionate girl who wanted nothing more than to love and be love. She could not restrain her passion and lashed out at her family for abusing her. However, as the novel progressed, she grew able to control herself, without, though, losing her passion or moral values. She became a giving, selfless, and charitable woman. This shows Jane’s coming of age and development and proves the novel Jane Eyre to be a bildungsroman.

Thirteen Rules of Basketball - James Naismith

Basketball is an original American game invented by Dr. James Naismith in 1891. He designed it with rules of its own. These are the rules published in January 1892 in the school newspaper where he instituted the game. The rules set out a game that is a non-contact sport played indoors. They are familiar enough that those who enjoy basketball over 100 years later will recognize it as the same sport. While there are other, newer rules, these still form the heart of the game. Original 13 Rules of Basketball by James Naismith 1. The ball may be thrown in any direction with one or both hands.Current rule: This is still a current rule, except that now the team isnt allowed to pass it back over the midcourt line once they have taken it over that line. 2. The ball may be batted in any direction with one or both hands, but never with the fist.Current rule: This is still a current rule. 3. A player cannot run with the ball. The player must throw it from the spot on which he catches it, allowance to be made for a man running at good speed.Current rule: Players can dribble the ball with one hand as they run or pass, but they cant run with the ball when catching a pass. 4.  The ball must be held by the hands. The arms or body must not be used for holding it.Current rule: Still applies, it would be a traveling violation. 5.  No shouldering, holding, pushing, striking or tripping in any way of an opponent. The first infringement of this rule by any person shall count as a foul; the second shall disqualify him until the next goal is made or, if there was evident intent to injure the person, for the whole of the game. No substitution shall be allowed.Current rule: These actions are fouls and a player may be disqualified with five or six fouls or get an ejection or suspension with a flagrant foul. 6.  A foul is striking at the ball with the fist, violations of Rules 3 and 4 and such as described in Rule 5.Current rule: Still applies. 7.  If either side makes three consecutive fouls it shall count as a goal for the opponents (consecutive means without the opponents in the meantime making a foul).Current rule: Instead of an automatic goal, sufficient team fouls (five in a quarter for NBA play) now award bonus free throws attempts to the opposing team. 8.  A goal shall be made when the ball is thrown or batted from the grounds into the basket and stays there, providing those defending the goal do no touch or disturb the goal. If the ball rests on the edges, and the opponent moves the basket, it shall count as a goal.Current rule: In the original game, the basket was a basket and not a hoop with a net. This rule evolved into the goaltending and defense pass interference rules. Defenders cant touch the rim of the hoop once the ball has been shot. 9.  When the ball goes out of bounds, it shall be thrown into the field and played by the first person touching it. In case of dispute the umpire shall throw it straight into the field. The thrower-in is allowed five seconds. If he holds it longer, it shall go to the opponent. If any side persists in delaying the game, the umpire shall call a foul on them.Current rule: The ball is now thrown in by a player from the opposite team of the player who last touched it before it went out of bounds. The 5-second rule is still operative. 10. The umpire shall be the judge of the men and shall note the fouls and notify the referee when three consecutive fouls have been made. He shall have the power to disqualify men according to Rule 5.Current rule: In NBA basketball, there are three referees. 11.  The referee shall be the judge of the ball and shall decide when the ball is in play, in bounds, to which side it belongs, and shall keep the time. He shall decide when a goal has been made and keep account of the goals, with any other duties that are usually performed by a referee.Current rule: Timekeepers and scorekeepers now do some of these tasks, while the referee determines ball possession. 12. The time shall be two fifteen-minute halves, with five minutes rest between.Current rule: This varies by the level of play, such as high school and collegiate. In the NBA, there are four quarters, each 12 minutes long, with a 15-minute halftime break. 13. The side making the most goals in that time shall be declared the winner.  Current: The winner is now decided by points. In the NBA, five-minute overtime periods are played in case of a tie at the end of the fourth quarter, with the point total at the end determining the winner. If still tied, they play another overtime period. More: The History of Basketball and Dr. James Naismith

Communication in 12 Angry Men Essay - 793 Words

Reginald Rose’s â€Å"12 Angry Men† is a testament to the power and productivity of conflict. In the same way that conflict can both help and hinder us, the ego/identity and relational based conflicts, and the competitive and avoidance approaches to conflict interfere with the group coming to consensus, yet at the same time galvanize these 12 angry men. Many of the jurors’ personal biases, often the causes of relational or ego/identity based conflict, constantly undermine the voting. Throughout the entire film, perhaps the most heated source of conflict arises from the group’s perception of that era’s underprivileged youth; they are stereotyped as, criminals, menaces to society, and rebels who don’t respect authority. Beginning of film,†¦show more content†¦This case only brings the group off track again as yet another disagreement has to be resolved. While these conflicts themselves might have held the jurors back, the competition approach to these sources of conflict moved the group in the right direction. For example, Juror #9, the old man, approached Juror #10’s insults and stereotyping in competitive fashion, claiming that people are not simply born liars. Later, Juror #10 calls the accused boy a â€Å"common ignorant slob [that] don’t even speak good English,† after which immigrant Juror #11 competitively corrects him. In the end, almost every juror takes a competitive approach to juror #10’s insulting in one of the film’s most powerful scenes as they, one by one, leave the table and turn their backs on him. The jurors unsympathizing intolerance of Juror #10’s bigoted views serve as a prime example of a competitive approach to conflict. The conflict and the approach to the conflict between the jurors and Juror #10 bring the group together as the votes slowly change from guilty to not guilty. Another major source of conflict is the other jurors’ disinterested approach to the trial. Almost every juror approaches Juror #8’s insistence on a not guilty vote with avoidance. They care little about the case and do not grasp its gravity,Show MoreRelatedGroup Communication In 12 Angry Men935 Words   |  4 Pages12 Angry Men: Group Analysis Paper In 1957, the producers H. Fonda, G. Justin and R. Rose collaborated with the director S. Lumet to create the film, 12 Angry Men. In this paper, I will provide an analysis of the small group communication displayed by the main characters in the motion picture. I will discuss group communications, group development, group membership, group diversity, and group leadership. These topics will be dissected in order to properly examine the characters’ behavior. 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Left Brain vs Right Brain Research Paper - 947 Words

Left brain VS Right brain Matthew Stafford Davenport University 10/25/2012 Right Brain Your brain processes and reacts to certain situations in many different ways. This is directly due to either being left brain or right brain. What is left brain or right brain you ask? People use either side to approach solutions to a variety of problems with different outcomes. People who are left brain tend to approach each problem with an analytical point of view. Right brain thinkers tend to arise at solutions based on their understanding of relationships. We will discuss how each side of the brain can have negative or positive impacts of solutions, and will give detail information on each side.(Dr. J. Robert dew, 1996) The†¦show more content†¦If you have a problem with a certain person, you’re feeling toward that person may be right and this will save you some trouble in the future. Left brain thinkers have a different way at arriving to solutions then right brain thinkers do. They solve their problems through the use of data. Left brain thinkers also have work done by individuals who are assigned to study a system using an orderly approach. Being a left brain thinker can have negative impacts such as not realizing the intent of another person in time to catch what they are up to, this in turn can be very dangerous. But left brain thinkers do develop solutions using logical analyses of all the facts. They also tend to identify root causes of problems by elaborately categorizing possible causes and using strict rules for questioning. Left hemisphere thinkers also try to improve quality by studying specific variations within a system. They establish controls in the early stages of a system that will ensure quality is controlled throughout the systems life cycle.(Herman N, 1982) Verbal and non-verbal processing of information have a huge impact on how well a student may be in school. A left brained student has trouble in expressing themselves in words when working on a creative paper. While right brained students may know what they mean, but often have a hard time finding the right words to say. Right brain students often have to back up everythingShow MoreRelatedEssay on Left vs. Right Brain1085 Words   |  5 PagesLeft vs. Right Brain The idea that the left and right sides of the brain can control many different aspects of behavior in different categories is an interesting one. Four websites which consider this concept are Neuro Pearls, the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association website, Left vs. Right Brain Modes, and SPLITTING THE HUMAN BRAIN. In Left Vs. Right Brain Modes, a direct comparison is presented in several categories. The left hemisphere is described as verbal, analytical, logicalRead MoreHormones and Behaviors1088 Words   |  5 Pagesemotions and social environments. LEFT SIDE VS. 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Kines Final Review Free Essays

What are the 3 functions of the Menisci? 10. Which menisci Is shaped Like an â€Å"O† and which one Is shaped Like a â€Å"C†? 11. What are the 3 different zones of the menisci and what is the difference between each of these zones? 12. We will write a custom essay sample on Kines Final Review or any similar topic only for you Order Now What are the two Excruciate ligaments? 13. Where does the PC attach on the femur? Where does the PC attach on the Tibia? 14. Where does the CAL attach on the femur? Where does the CAL attach on the tibia? 15. During non-weight bearing, what does the CAL prevent? During weight bearing, what does the CAL prevent? 16. During non-wealth bearing, what does the PC revert? During weight bearing. What does the PC prevent? 17. What force does the MAC prevent? What force does the LLC prevent? 18. Which muscles are our main hip fellers? 19. What does it mean for a muscle to be a 2-Joint muscle? 20. What are the names of our four quad muscles? Which ones affect both the hip and the knee? 21 . What are the names of the 3 hamstring muscles? 22. How do we manage or treat a quadriceps contusion? 23. For a hip dislocation, the leg will be In a position. 24. How do we manage a femur fracture? 25. Why are females more prone to CAL tears? 6. What is another name for a PC sprain? And 27. What are the common signs and symptoms of a maniacal lesion? 28. What is the difference between Osgood-Clatterers and Larsen-Johansson Disease? 29. What Is Patella Altar? What Is Patella Baja? 30. What are other names for Gene Vulgar and Gene Vary? Chapter 19- The Ankle and Lower Leg 1 . What are the four bones that make up the ankle? Ligaments are on the medial side of the ankle? 4. What are the names of the tarsal bones? 5. What are the four compartments of the lower leg and what muscles are in each compartment? 6. What two motions make up the actions probation and suppuration of the ankle? 7. Describe what pees caves and pees planks are. 8. What are the two phases of the gait cycle and what motions make up these two phases? 9. What is a more common name for hall values? 10. How do we manage hall values? 11. What Joints are involved in a Hammer Toe? 12. What Joints are involved in Mallet toe? 13. What Joints are involved in claw toe? 14. What is the etiology for turf toe? 15. How do we manage or treat an ingrown toenail? 16. What are the three different types of compartment syndrome? 7. What type of ankle sprain is the most common? 18. What are the signs and symptoms of an Achilles Tendon Rupture? 19. What is a more common name for Medial Tibia Stress Syndrome? 20. Define a Jones Fracture. Chapters 20-24 and 26-27- General Medical Conditions 1 . What is another name for syncope? 2. What are some signs and symptoms of syncope? 3. What is another name for Sudden Cardiac Death? 4. What are some re d flags for Sudden Cardiac Death? 5. What is Commotion Cord’s and how does it occur? 6. Compare and Contrast a Generalized Seizure and a Partial or Focal Seizure. 7. How do we manage or treat seizures? . What are some things that can trigger an Asthma Attack? 9. What are signs and symptoms of Asthma? 10. Compare and Contrast Type I and Type II Diabetes Mellitus. 11. What are some signs and symptoms of Diabetes? 12. What is Hyperglycemia? What are some signs and symptoms? 13. What is Hypoglycemia? What are some signs and symptoms? 14. What is the difference between food poisoning and the Flu? 15. What is normal body temperature? What is a low-grade fever? What is a high-grade fever? 16. What is the difference between a bacterial infection and a viral infection? 7. What is mononucleosis? How do we get it? 18. What are the signs and symptoms of Mononucleosis? 19. What is Seer’s Sign? 20. What does OSHA stand for? 21 . What are some of our personal precautions for bloodstone pathogens? 22. What are two different types of Menstrual Irregularities? 23. What is the female athlete triad? 1 . What is triangulation? 2. What gland controls triangulat ion? 3. What are the five different types of heat exchange or production? 4. When should we begin hydrating for activities? 5. How do we check hydration levels? 6. What are the recommendations for hydration? 7. What are common signs and symptoms of dehydration? 8. How do we manage dehydration? 9. Why do we need to replace our fluid and electrolytes? 10. What is acclimatization? 1 1 . Who are more susceptible to heat illnesses? 12. What is hyperthermia? What is hypothermia? 13. What is heat rash? 14. What is heat syncope? 15. What causes exertion heat cramps? 16. What are common signs and symptoms of heat exhaustion? How do we treat it? 17. What are common signs and symptoms of heat stroke? How do we treat it? 18. What is exertion hypothermia? 19. What is frost nip? 20. What are signs and symptoms of frostbite? . How do we treat cold injuries? 22. What do we do if there is lightning? 23. What is the flash to bang theory? Chapter 29- Dermatology 1 . What three things can cause skin infections? 2. What four things does the skin do for us? 3. What are signs and symptoms of bacterial infections? 4. What is follicles? 5. What is MRS.? What are the dangers of not treating MRS.? 6. How do we manage bacterial infections? 7. How do we prevent fungal infections? 8. What is tinge piped? 9. What is tinge capitals? 10. What causes fungal infections and how do we treat fungal infections? How to cite Kines Final Review, Papers

Martin Luther Protestant Reformation Essay Example For Students

Martin Luther Protestant Reformation Essay The Protestant Reformation:What it was,why it happenedand why it was necessary. The Protestant Reformation has been called the most momentous upheaval in the history of Christianity. It was a parting of the ways for two large groups of Christians who differed in their approach to the worship of Christ. At the time, the Protestant reformers saw the church- the Catholic church, or the universal church- as lacking in its ways. The church was corrupt then, all the way up to the pope, and had lost touch with the people of Europe. The leaders of the Reformation sought to reform the church and its teachings according to the Scriptures and the writings of the Apostles. They sought to simplify the church by returning to its roots, roots long lost by the Catholic church at the time, or so the reformers believed. After the fall of the Roman Empire, life in Europe declined rapidly into the Dark Ages. The Dark Ages were a time of misery and darkness. There were only two socioeconomic classes: the very rich nobility or the very poor peasants. Small kingdoms popped up everywhe re, and were constantly at war with one another. Whole libraries were destroyed, and the only people who remained literate were the clergy of the Christian church. Life became such a struggle to survive that, for a period of five hundred years, very little artwork or literature was produced by the whole of Europe. Eventually, around the year 1000, the conditions in Europe began to get better. This marked the beginning of the Middle Ages. The Crusades began as an effort to revitalize the spirits of the people. However, things still werent very good. Plagues ravaged the land, carried by rodents and destroying whole villages. With this all around, the people began to talk of witches and devils and evil spirits. The religious stories of the time, as seen in the sculpture of every church built during this time period, was of the Last Judgement and the tortures of Hell. This was the time of tall, sweeping Gothic cathedrals adorned with gargoyles and devils. Everywhere the people looked, t hey saw death, and it became the sole thought in their minds- that and what came after death. With the spreading literacy among the clergy and nobility of the times came new literature. For hundreds of ears the only literature that had existed were those books saved from the destruction of the Dark Ages by the church and the monasteries. Now, scholars began to write new books- all of it, of course, religious in nature. One of the most influential books of the time was The Imitation of Christ by Thomas a Kempis. The book gave clear and simple instruction for modeling a Christian spiritual life on that of Christ (The Volume Library, 1950. However, the way that it did this was to present the mind set of a sober awareness of death and a general view that life is a veil of tears (Carmody, 331). While The Imitation was not the progenitor of the mood for the next several hundred years, it certainly contributed to it. Everything in life became a form of suffering in imitation of Christ. It soon became that even the tiniest act or motion during church service became a holy symbol of p art of Christs pain. This was also the time of the greatest pilgrimages in history. People all over Europe travelled great distances to experience even the most insignificant of relics. Soon, the possession of relics became a kind of competition between churches and monasteries, denoting their popularity and piety. With the collection of relics came an increase in the size and wealth of the church which housed them. This led to an obsession for money and materialism within the church, which grew tremendously over the next few hundred years. It went so far as the selling of indulgences, which was basically the buying off of ones time spent in purgatory before ascending to heaven. As the Renaissance began, the clergy itself began collecting artwork and lavish decor not only for the church for their private offices. With this trend towards materialism came an obsession with the acts performed during Mass rather than what they represented. Soon, everything in the service contained some kind of mystery which was supposedly known only to the priest but not to the common man. With the Mass still being said in Latin, which only the clergy knew, it was no wonder that this sense of mystery completely separated the church from its followers. The priests espoused complicated rituals, but did little teaching and enlightening of the general masses. As if this wasnt bad enough, an amazing event put another spilt between the church and the people of Euope. The Great Schism, as it has been called. The long line of corrupt popes arrived at the election of Bartolomeo Prigano, of which accounts differ widely among those cardinals present at the election. Controversy surrounded this election over whether Prigano had actually been elected pope or had merely been nominated to be the new pope. The cardinals left Rom e and declared that the election was void and there currently was no leader of the church. Pope Clement VII- a relative of the French king- was elected by the cardinals, and he declared Prigano the anti-christ. The new pope took up residence in Avignon on the French border, and the corruption of the church grew even worse, becoming the scandal of Europe. It was obvious that the church and its head were being manipulated by the French royalty, and all of Europe knew it. As time went on, popes came and went in both Avignon and Rome, with different parts of Europe claiming loyalties to different popes. Skirmishes broke out constantly. Finally, in 1409, the College of Cardinals met to discuss The Great Schism. Neither pope agreed to attend the meeting, just ashad happened with every other meeting of this kind, and neither side showed any signs of reconciliation. The decision of the cardinals was to elect a third pope. Pope Alexander V and his successors tried to get the other two popes to back down to, no avail. The church was in turmoil, and Europe with it. In 1415, a national council took place between the major countries of Europe- France, Italy, Spain and Germany- called the council of Constance. The clergy from across the continent decided at this meeting, themselves being the greatest Christian authority of the time- so much that even the popes must abide by their decisions- that all three popes would be deposed and a new pope would be elected. Though not immediately effective, the Councils edict eventually took hold and the other popes dropped out of popularity. This ended The Great Schism, but not the atmosphere created by it. Caught up in its own disputes, the church had lost touch with its people, and simply unifying its leadership without altering its practices did little to change this. At the Council of Constance, as well as cleaning up the papacy, the subject of John Wycliffe and John Huss was brought up. Wycliffe had died many years earlier in 1384, but his views still persisted. Wycliffe, who had been a professor at the University of Oxford, had argued for a church reform based on a return to the Scriptures- one of the most popular ideas of what was to become the Reformation movement. He argued for a downsized church because the Church, as the assembly of all the predestined, is invisible, and hence formal membership in the external, institutional ecclesiastical body is no guarantees of salvation (Dolan 125). He rejected the idea that the office of the pope was a divine institution, arguing that the characteristics of the person must be comparable to their originator, St. Peter, to be divine. Foremost of the needed characteristics was the love of Christ. Turbografix 16 ...the beginning EssayLuther was eventually brought to trial and excommunicated from the church. However, no further action could be taken against Luther in Germany because of his popularity with the people and the size of his movement had taken on. The church ordered all of Luthers works burned, but few carried out this command with any enthusiasm. In 1520, he wrote a series of pamphlets entitled An Appeal to the Nobility of the German Nation, On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church and On Christian Liberty, which together set forth a plan for reforming the church. These contained ideas so radical that it would be impossible, as Desiderius Erasmus the great humanist and historian said, to make peace with the papacy. The pamphlets called for a return to the Scriptures and Epistles as the sole belief system of the church, for a priesthood for the common man instead of an exclusive clergy, and a doctrine of justification by faith alone. It must be asserted, though, t hat Luther and his followers still had no intention of removing themselves from the Catholic church. They wanted reform, not separation. But this reformation never happened. The leaders of different European countries swore allegiance to either one side or the other. Some governments followed the Protestant doctrine out of faith, others because it was a useful political tool in explaining their actions. In the Netherlands, for example, the Protestant Reform not only took the form of a religious upheaval but also of a political rebellion against the Spanish rulers. Everywhere, Europe was split along religious lines. Luther was tossed from one place to another by this maelstrom, brought before councils and protected by supportive monarchs. Luther eventually died in 1546. In his final days, he had become a bitter and often disappointed man. The Reformers who came to take his place seemed to him too fanatic and too proud. They had held back when he alone had faced the fury of the Pope, and now they had burst forth triumphantly now that the papacy had been broken. The Reformation continued outside of Germany, occurring mos tly in the north and outside of England. Following Luther came Martin Bucer to lead the German Reform movement, Ulrich Zwingli in Switzerland, and John Calvin in Geneva. These men were keen observers of the winds of political change that ranged about them. They were more sophisticated than Luther and his earliest followers, and they planted the Reformation movement in large population centers and identified it with civic and social responsibilities. Holiness of life, not membership in a world-wide organizational design, was their criterion of the true Christian (Dolan 269). Each of them changed Luthers original doctrine to suit their needs- mostly dealing with the Eucharist- but they kept the flame of the revolt alive. Following the lead of the Protestant Reformers on the continent, King Henry VIII of England rejected the authority of the pope and declared himself head of the Church of England in 1534. This rebellion was not, however, honest and sincere like that of the Protestant Reformers. Henry broke with the church because he wanted a male heir to the throne, and he could not convince the pope to annul his marriage to Cathrine of Aragon- the first of his six wives. Following Henry, King Edward VI and Queen Elizabeth continued to mold this new church after the Protestant example. Elizabeth deliberately tried to keep the church a faith midway between Protestantism and Roman Catholicism. Having lost much of its former glory, the Catholic church finally called together a council to take action against the Reformation which had so violently broken the church. It had been over twenty years since any such council had met. The Council of Trent was convened at Trento in northern Italy from 1546 to 1564. The policies developed at the Council made up what was called the Counter- Reformation. In response to the humanistic views of the Reformation, the Catholic church zealously strengthened its own religious views. The councils first action was, of course, to denounce Protestantism and reaffirm the Catholic doctrine. It set into motion the improvement of the education of priests and reasserted the power and authority of the Pope across Europe. It also, to assure the popes power and to prevent future harm by rebels such as Luther, established the Inquisition whose duty it was to hunt out any threat to the church and remove it. So while the Reformation led to political dissension and increased rebellion, the Counter- Reformation resulted in intolerance, moralizing and a taste for exaggerated religiosity (Adams, 281). The final battle of the Protestant Reformation was fought nearly fifty years later: the Thirty Years War. An actual military war between the German princes which had banded together to form the Protestant Union and the Catholic League in the south and west. The war began with revolt in Bohemia, homeland of John Huss, and soon encompasses Denmark, Sweden and France as well. The war finally ended in Germany in 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia, but Europe would never again be the same. France and Spain continued to fight, and the Protestants and the Catholics continued to glare at each other from their respective sidelines. The explosion that had split the Catholic church had died away, but the fire it left behind continued to burn. Seen in perspective with the history of the times, the Reformation was inevitable. It not only spoke out against the atrocities, selfishness and hypocrisy that the people of northern Europe protested against, but it also provided a form of religious express ion that let men and women worship God in their own fashion. The lifestyles of northern and southern Europe were and still are vastly different. Italy at the time was far more crowded and urban than Germany and its neighbors. The people of the south were also of a different heritage. The Catholic church centered itself around the ruins of the Roman Empire and was made up of the descends of the Romans and Jews. The people of the north came from the Germanic tribes like the Goths, tribes which had been instrumental in the fall of the Empire. The south was decadent, the north rural. It is hardly surprising that these two regions would eventually develop their own form of religious expression. Thus, Protestantism and its offshoots- Lutheran, Baptist, Methodist and such- are still popular in the world today, very often with people who have roots where the faiths originated. Roman Catholicism still thrives as well, but in a less corrupt state than during the Reformation. It now dominates much of Europe, while the Protestant religions have taken over America. Religion Essays